COAL & HEALTH

Coal used in Wisconsin mostly comes from Wyoming and other western states. Though coal is not mined in Wisconsin, there has been a long history of coal burning, releasing CO2, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and small particles into the air. Coal ash landfills contain toxins like mercury, arsenic, molybdenum, boron, lead, tin, and cadmium. Coal combustion and waste disposal has significant public health impacts. Combustion likely constitutes the single largest contributing factor to adverse public health effects across the coal use continuum.

Though coal use globally is holding steady, it is firmly declining in Wisconsin. According to the US Energy Information Administration, Wisconsin used 20.4 million tons of coal in 2018 and 15.5 million tons in 2019, which is almost a 24% decrease. (2)

In 2020, coal-fired power plants provided 39% of Wisconsin’s electricity, which was the lowest in two decades, down from 82% in 1997. Currently there are planned closures of the Oak Creek and Columbia plants in 2023 and 2025 respectively. (3) While it is beneficial to public health that coal plants are gradually being retired, natural gas has replaced much of the previous coal plant infrastructure, which shares some of the same health impacts.

The public health impact of alternative fuel sources is beyond the scope of this position paper, but when compared to natural gas, petroleum, or nuclear, renewable fuel sources are far superior from both the environmental and public health perspective. (4)

Particulate matter or particle pollution is a mix of tiny particles that when inhaled, pass into our bloodstream through lung tissue, circulating in our bodies to all of our organ systems. Consequently, this increases the risk of heart disease, lung cancer, asthma attacks, and shortened lifespan in adults. It is estimated that there are 52,000 premature deaths (shortened lifespan) annually in the US from particulate matter emissions alone. (5) Children’s developing brains are particularly affected by particle pollution including deficits in intelligence, memory and behavior ranging from developmental delay, ADHD and autism, to symptoms of anxiety and depression. (6)

These particles can be either solid or liquid and consist of substances including nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and metals. Particulate matter consists of coarse particles, ranging from 2.5-10 microns (PM 10-2.5), fine particles, which are < 2.5 microns (PM 2.5) and ultrafine particles, a much smaller particle < 100 nm. (7)

For families living near coal-fired power plants, exposure to fine and ultrafine particle pollutants cause higher rates of infant mortality, poorer child health, increased cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, lung cancer, all-cause mortality and premature mortality. (8) (9)

Unfortunately, monitoring for particulate pollution in Wisconsin and across the US is spotty and inaccurate. It is estimated that 120 million Americans live in counties that have no monitors for small particles. Therefore, health effects of small particle pollution are likely underestimated. (10)(11)

Health outcomes have been shown to improve following the closure of fossil fuel plants. For example, preterm births have decreased in California since coal and oil plants were closed. (12)

The Clean Air Task Force publishes estimates of yearly health impacts of particulate matter for individual coal fired power plants across the US. Using a modeling tool adopted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) called Powerplant Impact Estimator modeling, the following yearly health outcomes were estimated to be attributed to coal fired power plants in Wisconsin (13)(14):

• Deaths 87

• Hospital Admissions 25

• Asthma ER Visit 44

• Heart Attacks 53

• Chronic Bronchitis 21

• Asthma attacks 573

• Work Loss Days 4278

Ground ozone is a complex chemical reaction between nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and heat, forming a toxic gas called ozone. Significant amounts of NOx and VOCs are produced by burning coal, contributing to the formation of ground ozone.

Ozone affects anyone who spends time outdoors, but some people are more vulnerable to the effects of ozone including children, elderly, outdoor workers, and those with pre-existing heart and lung disease. Breathing ozone increases the risk of premature death, asthma attacks, increased respiratory infections, and increased chronic lung disease exacerbations. Elevated ozone levels can increase the risks of heart disease even for those without pre-existing heart disease. (15)

A rise in ozone is linked to the doubling of asthma and other respiratory disease rates. In communities with high ground ozone levels, active kids are three times more likely to have asthma. A recent study showed that long term nitrogen dioxide exposure “may be one of the most important contributors to fatality caused by COVID-19” (16).

With coal plant pollution controls in place under the Clean Air Act, fortunately, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) has been significantly reduced in recent years. After a Clean Air Act settlement in 2013 with three Wisconsin coal-fired power plants NOx, SO2, and particulate matter were reduced by over 50,000 tons annually. (17)

Though ground-level ozone levels have declined, there are a number of studies showing a linear exposure-response curve with no threshold or a threshold at very low concentrations. (18) Therefore, studies show there is no safe ozone level. For example, a Netherlands study concluded that if an ozone threshold exists, it does so at very low levels. (19)

Coal ash is the by-product of coal combustion, of which 80% is finer particles or fly ash, and 20% coarser particles called bottom ash. 100 million tons of coal ash is produced yearly in the US from coal-fired power plants, most of which has been dumped in unlined landfills (20) and are commonly located near residential communities. Often these unlined landfills leak. According to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources permit documents, the ash pond at the Columbia Energy Center near Portage leaks about 433,000 gallons of water per day into groundwater. (21) Due to high mercury levels from this landfill leakage, the abutting Columbia Lake has a fish advisory.

Neurologic effects of mercury cause lifelong brain changes in children affecting learning, coordination, and reaction time. Adults and older children can have cognitive problems, coordination, balance, vision, hearing and speech problems.

Other heavy metals and minerals present in coal ash also have significant health consequences, recognized by the EPA (22, page 10). These include arsenic, molybdenum, boron, lead, tin, and cadmium. Arsenic exposure in pregnancy and early childhood causes low birth weight, preterm birth, neurotoxicity and increased infections. In later life arsenic contributes to cardiovascular disease, lung disease, cancers, anemia and diabetes. Molybdenum exposure causes symptoms of headache, fatigue, decreased appetite, muscle and joint pain, and gout while long term causes kidney and liver damage. Boron toxicity causes stomach, intestinal, liver kidney and brain function problems while causing death at high levels.

According to the Environmental Integrity Project (EIP) Coal Ash Report, “the most enduring legacy of coal ash disposal will undoubtedly be groundwater pollution.” (22) After a major coal ash spill in Kingston, Tennessee in 2008, EIP and allied organizations pressured the EPA to establish the “Coal Ash Rule” in 2015 which established groundwater monitoring requirements for coal ash dumps. Closer to home, in 2011, the Oak Creek WE Energies Generating Station coal ash fill collapsed, sending 25,000 tons of coal ash into Lake Michigan. (22, page 9)

Unfortunately, those coal ash dumps that were closed before the rule was put in place are not monitored. Of the monitored coal ash dumps, one of the most significant examples is the Edgewater Generating Station ash dump, found to have 55 times the safe level of molybdenum. (22 page 65)

Private drinking water wells are also not monitored but there are well known instances of drinking water contamination by coal ash including wells near the cities of Sheboygan, Waukesha, and Caledonia, and a site in Ozaukee County (20 page 45-46) which are listed as “proven damage cases” meaning that coal ash contaminants were proven to be sources of groundwater contamination in these wells (23-27). Groundwater contaminants including boron, cobalt, iron, lithium, selenium, molybdenum, and sulfate were found to be at levels which threaten human health and the environment.

Though several of these coal plants have been retired or on track to retire, they continue to pollute. Others, like the Weston Power Station near Rothschild, continue to operate while three of the 12 groundwater monitoring wells are polluted above the federal advisory levels with unsafe levels of cobalt of samples collected in 2016-2017. (28)

Global warming as a result of climate change is described by public health experts as a public health emergency. According to the International Energy Administration, coal combustion is responsible for more than 30% of the average global temperature increase since preindustrial times, the largest single source of this increase. (29) The public health impacts of climate change are extensive and include heat related illness, increased infectious diseases, mental health problems, armed conflict and social instability from large-scale migration. Those most vulnerable are disproportionately affected – black, indigenous, people of color, elderly, and infants.

According to the 2018 IPCC report, to keep the rise in global temperatures below 1.5C, emissions of CO2 would need to be cut by 45% from 2010 levels by 2030. (30) Since coal burning significantly contributes to CO2 emissions and climate change, it is critical to address coal use immediately.

1. Eilperin J, Dennis B. 2018 EPA eases rules of how coal ash waste is stored across US. Washington Post, July 17.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/epa-eases-rules-on-how-coal-ash-waste-is-stored-across-the-us/2018/07/17/740e4b9a-89d3-11e8-85ae-511bc1146b0b_story.html

2. US Energy Information Administration Annual Coal Report 2019 https://www.eia.gov/coal/annual/pdf/acr.pdf

3. US Energy Information Administration Wisconsin State Profile and Energy Estimates https://www.eia.gov/state/?sid=WI

4. Hendryx M, Zullig KJ, Luo J. Annual Review of Public Health Vol.41:397-415 (Volume publication date April 2020) First published as a Review in Advance on January 8, 2020

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094104

5. Apt J. 2017. The other reason to shift away from coal: air pollution that kills thousands every year. Scientific American, June 7. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-other-reason-to-shift-away-from-coal-air-pollution-that-kills-thousands-every-year/

6. Payne-Sturges D, Marty M, Perera F, Miller M, Swanson M, Ellickson K, Dory-Slechta D, Ritz B, Balmes J, Anderko, L, Talbott E, Gould R, Hertz-Picciotto I. Am J Public Health. 2019 April; 109(4): 550-554 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6417586/

(5.5)

7. American Lung Association. Particle Pollution

https://www.lung.org/clean-air/outdoors/what-makes-air-unhealthy/particle-pollution

8. Kravchenko J, Lyerly HK. 2018. The impact of coal-powered electrical plants and coal ash impoundments on the health of residential communities. N.C. Med. J. 79:289-300

9. Hii M, Beyer K, Namin S, Malecki K, Schultz A, Rublee C. 2021. Respiratory disease, racial disparities and residential proximity to coal power plants in Wisconsin, USA: cross-sectional study. The Lancet Global Health, Vol 9, Supplement 1, March 2021, Page S19

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214109X21001273

10. American Lung Association. State of the Air. Report Card: Wisconsin https://www.stateoftheair.org/city-rankings/states/wisconsin/

11. Reuters December 1, 2020 Special Report: US air monitors routinely miss pollution – even refinery explosions https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-pollution-airmonitors-specialreport/special-report-u-s-air-monitors-routinely-miss-pollution-even-refinery-explosions-idUSKBN28B4RT

12. Casey JA, Karasek D, Ogburn EL, Goin DE, Dang K, et al. 2018 Retirements of coal and oil power plants in California: association with reduced preterm birth among populations nearby. Am.J.Epidemiol. 187:1586-94

13. Toll from Coal Methodology; Powerplant Impact Estimator (PIE) Analysis https://www.tollfromcoal.org/assets/file/Toll_from_Coal_Methodology_4_19_2018.pdf

14. Clean Air Task Force Coal Plants in Wisconsin

https://www.tollfromcoal.org/#/map/(title:none/WI//detail:none/WI//map:none/WI)

15. American Lung Association - Ozone

https://www.lung.org/clean-air/outdoors/what-makes-air-unhealthy/ozone

16. Assessing nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels as a contributing factor to coronavirus (COVID-19) fatality Ogen Y. Sci Total Environ. 2020 Jul 15;726:138605

17. US Department of Justice News Clean Air Act Settlement with Wisconsin Utilities to Reduce Emissions by More than 50,000 Tons Annually https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/clean-air-act-settlement-wisconsin-utilities-reduce-emissions-more-50000-tons-annually

18. Bell ML, Peng RD, Dominici F. The exposure-response curve for ozone and risk of mortality and the adequacy of current ozone regulations. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114(4):532-536.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref

19. Hoek G, Schwartz JD, Groot B, Eilers P. Effects of ambient particulate matter and ozone on daily mortality in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Arch Environ Health. 1997;52(6):455-463.PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref

20. Environmental Integrity Project March 4, 2019 (Updated: 4/30/2019) Coal’s Poisonous Legacy: Groundwater Contaminated by Coal Ash Across the US http://www.environmentalintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/National-Coal-Ash-Report-4.30.2019.pdf

21. Wisconsin State Journal March 5, 2019 Report: Industry data show groundwater pollution prevalent at coal-fired power plants https://madison.com/wsj/news/local/environment/report-industry-data-show-groundwater-pollution-prevalent-at-coal-fired-power-plants/article_69200c48-6870-5281-b47d-efe7e346c307.html#:~:text=Alliant's%20Columbia%20Energy%20Center%20near,water%20per%20day%20into%20the

22. National Coal Ash Report, Coal’s Poisonous Legacy, Groundwater Contaminated by Coal Ash Across the US, Environmental Integrity Project. April 30, 2019 www.environmentalintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/National-Coal-Ash-Report-4.30.2019.pdf

23. EPA Damage Cases, Vol. IIa, page 138.

24. Id. at page 150.

25. EPA Damage Cases, Vol. I, page 199.

26. EPA Damage Cases, Vol. IIb, Part Two, page 125.

27. Ashtracker, an Environmental Integrity Project dataset complied from industry-reported monitoring records. Caledonia Ash Landfill ashtracker.org/facility/362/caledonia-ash-landfill

28. Ashtracker, an Environmental Integrity Project dataset complied from industry-reported monitoring records. Weston Power Station ashtracker.org/facility/371/weston-power-station

29. IEA (Int. Energy Agency). 2019. Global energy and CO2 status report. Rep., IEA, Paris. https://www.iea.org/reports/gloabl-energy-and-co2-status-report-2019

30. IPCC, 2018: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)]. In Press.)